The objective of this (revised) blog is to ask three questions:
- What published studies provide exemplary rationale to support choices of variables for a conceptual framework to support regression analysis?
- Given definitions of confounding [1-3], why don’t observational studies provide support for both confounder-outcome associations and confounder-exposure associations in their rationale?
- Does any study provide a risk of bias assessment of the studies used to define its conceptual framework?
Other authors [4] have advocated using quality assessments of systematic reviews to support variable choices using the Risk of Bias in Systematic Reviews (ROBIS) tool [5]. While they indicate that assessing studies for bias can be time intensive, should these assessments be essential? If evidence to support construction of a conceptual framework is biased, then the resulting framework will also be biased.
My research question is in the context of a lower middle-income country where I found only eight published studies to justify my conceptual framework. However, they were at high risk of bias for several reasons.
What criteria inform variable selection?
Neglecting prespecification of variables risks drawing inappropriate conclusions from regression models [6, 7] (for example [2]). Where available [8], several sources of information can inform decisions about which variables to choose [4, 9-11]:
- Published literature (meta-analyses, primary studies, grey literature)
- Similar datasets
- Accepted theories
- Current hypotheses
- Expert opinion (clinicians, statisticians, and health systems experts)
- Known constraints on model parameters
Diagram Based Analysis of Causal Systems (DACS) provides a useful framework and practical considerations for this identification process [11], and Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) are useful to ensure inclusion of confounders and exclusion of mediators to estimate the full effect of an intervention [1-3].
What examples exist of well-documented rationale for pre-specified variable selection?
Historically few observational studies provided rationale for conceptual framework [12], although more are now including rationale for confounding [13] (also for randomized controlled trials prespecifying adjusted analyses [14]). Between 2010-2012, 25% of one set of studies provided rationale for selecting potential confounders, and 40.0% gave reasons for including confounders in the final model. However, only 0.9% of these studies from the latter period included a causal diagram [13]. Individual studies provide examples of various strengths such as reporting the universe of considered variables [11], soliciting expert opinion [15], application of a DAG framework [2], supporting cofounder-outcome relationships [16, 17], and combining a priori statements of model structure with a posteriori testing for model building [11]. In my opinion, the following elements represent a full set of rationale to support pre-specified rationale for regression modeling.
- Prespecified hypotheses for each exposure-outcome relationship
- Evidence supporting that each confounder causes the outcome
- Evidence supporting that each confounder is associated with the exposure, without being caused by the exposure
- A DAG showing the relationships between variables
- A risk of bias assessment of the studies used to support the DAG
- A list of variables that researchers considered but chose not to include with rationale
- Rationale for sensitivity analyses on alternative model specifications
Given the pace of current research, concerns about the time investment required to produce these components are legitimate [4]. Resources are not infinite for any research study and researcher talent improves as our careers develop. However, we should consider whether the prevalence of biased research in publication is acceptable [18, 19], and whether second-order peer review is efficient [20].
Why is risk of bias assessment necessary?
Risk of bias assessments are an essential component of systematic review and meta-analysis [21], and have been applied to evaluations of high-profile journal publications [12, 13]. However, it is difficult to find similar assessments of studies used to define conceptual frameworks for regression analysis. Why not? If rationale to define relationships within a DAG are not accurate, then conceptual frameworks will be biased.
What tools are available?
Risk of bias assessment tools are proliferating for non-randomized studies [21, 22], randomized trials [23, 24], quasi-experimental studies [25], predictive modeling [26, 27], systematic reviews [5], and other applications. These tools represent quality of conduct tools, where the EQUATOR group provides useful checklists for assessing reporting quality [28].
Importance of sensitivity analysis
Explicitly reporting rationale to support pre-specified associations and risk of bias of supporting studies highlight that evidence for some associations will be stronger than for others. For example, evidence to support a variable may be equivocal with some studies supporting an association but not others. This circumstance increases the importance of sensitivity analysis [9], although few studies report alternative specifications. My strategy is to test:
- All variables well-supported by theory (full effect)
- A full model, adding variables that are equivocal to the previous model
- A full model subtracting variables that are measured by proxy
- All supported by theory direct effect
- Full model adding variables that are equivocal (direct effect)
- All variables and targeted interaction terms of interest
Harrell [29] has provided several useful ideas for which interaction terms to consider, and I have ordered a copy of Chatterjee and Hadi for other ideas [30].
Researchers should check the strength of rationale for specifications used by previous research before testing them in sensitivity analysis. Caution should guide conclusions about consistency as ‘claimed research findings may often be simply accurate measures of the prevailing bias’ [18].
A step forward
It will be interesting to see if methods to automate elements of risk of bias assessments proliferate and make this process more efficient [31].
Some useful resources
Miguel Hernán provides several free resources on his website:
Thank you for any feedback you can offer.
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